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Downward confounding: Downward confounding arises when a negatively associated confounding variable underestimates the impact of the exposure on the outcome, resulting in a weakened observed association

He said Millar had smoked for about 40 to 45 years before quitting, after which Millar often joked that he was the only Marlboro Man who doesnt smoke, drink or like horses. Thats not quite true: One of the Marlboro ad campaigns first actors was William Thourlby, a Broadway actor who would later say he never even drank, let alone smoked

In addition, smoking is also a risk factor for various other chronic diseases, especially cancer

doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.01.026 20